Describimos una nueva especie de Pristimantis de la Reserva Buenaventura, al sur del Ecuador, entre elevaciones de 878 y 1082 m. Una filogenia molecular basada en genes nucleares y mitocondriales revela que la nueva especie está cercanamente relacionada a P. phoxocephalus, P. riveti y P. versicolor. La nueva especie difiere de ellas y otros congéneres morfológicamente similares por presentar un pliegue bajo en forma de “W” en la región escapular, un tubérculo cónico sobre el párpado y en el talón, un delgado pliegue mediodorsal y un pliegue lateral longitudinal que se inicia detrás del pliegue timpánico y se extiende a lo largo de dos tercios del flanco. La nueva especie vive en bosques nublados de las estribaciones pacíficas de los Andes.

Many Amazonian frog species that are considered widely distributed may actually represent polyspecific complexes. A minute tree frog from the Guiana Shield originally assigned to the allegedly widely distributed Dendropsophus brevifrons proved to be a yet undescribed species within the D. parviceps group. We herein describe this new species and present a phylogeny for the D. parviceps group. The new species is diagnosed from other Dendropsophus of the parviceps group by its small body size (19.6–21.7 mm in males, 22.1–24.5 mm in females), thighs dorsally dark grey with cream blotches without bright yellow patch, absence of dorsolateral and canthal stripe, and an advertisement call comprising trills (length 0.30–0.35 s) composed of notes emitted at a rate of 131–144 notes/s, generally followed by click series of 2–3 notes. Its tadpole is also singular by having fused lateral marginal papillae and absence of both labial teeth and submarginal papillae. Genetic distances (p-distance) are >5.3% on the 12S and >9.3% on the 16S from D. brevifrons, its closest relative. This species occurs from the Brazilian state of Amapá, across French Guiana and Suriname to central Guyana and is likely to also occur in adjacent Brazilian states and Eastern Venezuela. This species is not rare but is difficult to collect because of its arboreal habits and seasonal activity peaks.

Background Management and conservation of biodiversity requires adequate species inventories. The Yasuní National Park is one of the most diverse regions on Earth and recent studies of terrestrial vertebrates, based on genetic evidence, have shown high levels of cryptic and undescribed diversity. Few genetic studies have been carried out in freshwater fishes from western Amazonia. Thus, in contrast with terrestrial vertebrates, their content of cryptic diversity remains unknown. In this study, we carried out genetic and morphological analyses on characin fishes at Yasuní National Park, in eastern Ecuador. Our goal was to identify cryptic diversity among one of the most speciose fish families in the Amazon region. This is the first time that genetic evidence has been used to assess the species content of the Napo Basin, one of the richest regions in vertebrate diversity. Results Phylogenetic analyses of partial mitochondrial 16S ribosomal RNA gene (*600 pb) DNA sequences from 232 specimens of the family Characidae and its closest groups revealed eight candidate new species among 33 species sampled, representing a 24% increase in species number. Analyses of external morphology allowed us to confirm the species status of six of the candidate species. Conclusions Our results show high levels of cryptic diversity in Amazonian characins. If this group is representative of other Amazonian fish, our results would imply that the species richness of the Amazonian ichthyofauna is highly underestimated. Molecular methods are a necessary tool to obtain more realistic inventories of Neotropical freshwater fishes.

Pluralistic approaches to taxonomy facilitate a more complete appraisal of biodiversity, especially the diversification of cryptic species. Although species delimitation has traditionally been based primarily on morphological differences, the integration of new methods allows diverse lines of evidence to solve the problem. Robber frogs (Pristimantis) are exemplary, as many of the species show high morphological variation within populations, but few traits that are diagnostic of species. We used a combination of DNA sequences from three mitochondrial genes, morphometric data, and comparisons of ecological niche models (ENMs) to infer a phylogenetic hypothesis for the Pristimantis acuminatus complex. Molecular phylogenetic analyses revealed a close relationship between three new species—Pristimantis enigmaticus sp. nov., P. limoncochensis sp. nov. and P. omeviridis sp. nov.-originally confused with Pristimantis acuminatus. In combination with morphometric data and geographic distributions, several morphological characters such as degree of tympanum exposure, skin texture, ulnar/tarsal tubercles and sexual secondary characters (vocal slits and nuptial pads in males) were found to be useful for diagnosing species in the complex. Multivariate discriminant analyses provided a successful classification rate for 83–100% of specimens. Discriminant analysis of localities in environmental niche space showed a successful classification rate of 75–98%. Identity tests of ENMs rejected hypotheses of niche equivalency, although not strongly because the high values on niche overlap.

Determining the extent of reproductive isolation in cryptic species with dynamic geographic ranges can yield important insights into the processes that generate and maintain genetic divergence in the absence of severe geographic barriers. We studied mating patterns, propensity to hybridize in nature and subsequent fertilization rates, as well as survival and development of hybrid F1 offspring for three nominal species of the Engystomops petersi species complex in YasunõÂ National Park, Ecuador. We found at least two species in four out of six locations sampled, and 14.3% of the wild pairs genotyped were mixed-species (heterospecific) crosses. We also found reduced fertilization rates in hybrid crosses between E. petersi females and E. ªmagnusº males, and between E. ªmagnusº females and E. ªselvaº males but not in the reciprocal crosses, suggesting asymmetric reproductive isolation for these species. Larval development times decreased in F1 hybrid crosses compared to same species (conspecific) crosses, but we did not find significant reduction in larval survival or early metamorph survival. Our results show evidence of post-mating isolation for at least two hybrid crosses of the cryptic species we studied. The general decrease in fertilization rates in heterospecific crosses suggests that sexual selection and reinforcement might have not only contributed to the pattern of call variation and behavioral isolation we see between species today, but they may also contribute to further signal divergence and behavioral evolution, especially in locations where hybridization is common and fertilization success is diminished.

We describe a small frog of the genus Pristimantis inhabiting bromeliads (snout-vent length 20.3‑23.3 mm in females, 16.1‑17.4 mm in males), from a remote sandstone plateau of the Cordillera del Condor, in southeastern Ecuador, with an altitudinal range of 2,045‑2,860 m. A phylogeny based on sequences of DNA (mitochondrial and nuclear genes) supports inclusion in the P. orestes group and suggests an undescribed Pristimantis from the southern slope of eastern Ecuador as the closest taxon. The new species differs from its congeners in Ecuador by having predominantly black dorsal and ventral coloration; comprehensive and robust palmar surface with stubby fingers; presence of a deep and wide groove from the anterior base of finger I to the rear base of the palmar tubercle; subarticular divided tubers, enlarged supernumerary small granules and tubercles. All individuals were found in terrestrial bromeliads. The calls are short, frequency modulated, comprising of a note 5‑15 ms in duration. Insects represented 80% of the diet of the new species.

Assembly of ecological communities is important for the conservation of ecosystems, predicting perturbation impacts, and understanding the origin and loss of biodiversity. We tested how amphibian communities are assembled by neutral and niche‐based mechanisms, such as habitat filtering. Species richness, β‐diversities, and reproductive traits of amphibians were evaluated at local scale in seven habitats at different elevation and disturbance levels in Wisui Biological Station, Morona‐Santiago, Ecuador, on the foothills of the Cordillera del Kutukú; and at regional scale using 109 localities across evergreen forests of Amazonia and its Andean slopes (0–3,900 m a.s.l.). At local scale, species composition showed strong differences among habitats, explained mainly by turnover. Reproductive modes occurred differently across habitats (e.g., prevalence of direct developers at high elevation, where breeding in ground level water disappears). At regional scale, elevation was the most important factor explaining the changes in species richness, reproductive trait occurrences, and biotic dissimilarities. Species number in all groups decreased with elevation except for those with lotic tadpoles and terrestrial reproduction stages. Seasonality, annual precipitation, and relative humidity partially explained the occurrence of some reproductive traits. Biotic dissimilarities were also mostly caused by turnover rather than nestedness and were particularly high in montane and foothill sites. Within lowlands, geographic distance explained more variability than elevation.

Problems associated with delimiting species are particularly pronounced in taxa with high species-level diversity, as occurs in Pristi ti frogs. Herein, we resurrect Pristimantis brevicrus, nov. comb., from the synonymy of P. altamazonicus, a widespread species in the upper Amazon Basin, based on morphological, acoustic and genetic evidence. Both species are sympatric along the Upper Amazon Basin of Ecuador and northern Peru, up to 1450 m. Phylogenetic analyses reveals that P. altamazonicus and P. brevicrus are sister taxa in a well-supported clade with P. diadematus and two unconfirmed candidate species. Pristimantis altamazonicus is distinguished from P. brevicrus by having a differentiated tympanic annulus, a smooth dorsum with scattered small tubercles towards the flanks, weakly areolate skin on the venter, red to bright orange groin with black mottling, on hidden surfaces of thighs (bluish-white to yellowish-white in P. brevicrus) of living specimens. The recognition of P. brevicrus and two unconfirmed candidate species suggest that the diversity of these frogs is inadequately understood, highlighting the need for more integrative taxonomic reviews of Amazonian amphibians.

Foam nests have evolved independently in several amphibian groups as an adaptive response to prevent predation and desiccation in dry environments. Nests are normally laid on ponds, or in underground galleries, humid forest leaf litter or terrestrial bromeliads. They are built when males or females beat a foam precursor associated with the egg masses extruded by the female. The spawning process requires the synchronic actions of the mating pair to obtain a hemispheric nest that protects the offspring. Herein, we describe the spawning behaviour of Engystomops pustulatus based on videos from 13 nesting couples from the lowlands of western Ecuador. Three variables were measured as indicators of male effort: duration of mixing events, duration of resting periods, and number of kicks per mixing event. We consider that not only male physical effort but also female behaviour influences nest structure. We suggest that nest building requires prolonged and intense physical activity by the male as well as the female’s steady position during spawning and female’s oviposition site selection. Nest building has two phases. In the first phase, the duration of resting periods, the duration of mixing events, and the number of kicks increase and are highly variable. During the second phase the three variables stabilise until the end.

Genetic data in studies of systematics of Amazonian amphibians frequently reveal that purportedly widespread single species in reality comprise species complexes. This means that real species richness may be significantly higher than current estimates. Here we combine genetic, morphological, and bioacoustic data to assess the phylogenetic relationships and species boundaries of two Amazonian species of the Dendropsophus leucophyllatus species group: D. leucophyllatus and D. triangulum. Our results uncovered the existence of five confirmed and four unconfirmed candidate species. Among the confirmed candidate species, three have available names: Dendropsophus leucophyllatus, Dendropsophus triangulum, and Dendropsophus reticulatus, this last being removed from the synonymy of D. triangulum. A neotype of D. leucophyllatus is designated. We describe the remaining two confirmed candidate species, one from Bolivia and another from Peru. All confirmed candidate species are morphologically distinct and have much smaller geographic ranges than those previously reported for D. leucophyllatus and D. triangulum sensu lato. Dendropsophus leucophyllatus sensu stricto occurs in the Guianan region. Dendropsophus reticulatus comb. nov. corresponds to populations in the Amazon basin of Brazil, Ecuador, and Peru previously referred to as D. triangulum. Dendropsophus triangulum sensu stricto is the most widely distributed species; it occurs in Amazonian Ecuador, Peru and Brazil, reaching the state of Pará. We provide accounts for all described species including an assessment of their conservation status

Rapid radiation coupled with low genetic divergence often hinders species delimitation and phylogeny estimation even if putative species are phenotypically distinct. Some aposematic species, such as poison frogs (Dendrobatidae), have high levels of intraspecific color polymorphism, which can lead to overestimation of species when phenotypic divergence primarily guides species delimitation. We explored this possibility in the youngest origin of aposematism (3–7 MYA) in poison frogs, Epipedobates, by comparing genetic divergence with color and acoustic divergence. We found low genetic divergence (2.6% in the 16S gene) despite substantial differences in color and acoustic signals. While chemical defense is inferred to have evolved in the ancestor of Epipedobates, aposematic coloration evolved at least twice or was lost once in Epipedobates, suggesting that it is evolutionarily labile. We inferred at least one event of introgression between two cryptically colored species with adjacent ranges (E. boulengeri and E. machalilla). We also find evidence for peripheral isolation resulting in phenotypic divergence and potential speciation of the aposematic E. tricolor from the non-aposematic E. machalilla. However, we were unable to estimate a well-supported species tree or delimit species using multispecies coalescent models. We attribute this failure to factors associated with recent speciation including mitochondrial introgression, incomplete lineage sorting, and too few informative molecular characters. We suggest that species delimitation within young aposematic lineages such as Epipedobates will require genome-level molecular studies.

We describe a new species of frog of the genus Chiasmocleis from the montane forests of southeastern Ecuador, at the western slopes of Cordillera del Cóndor, between 1,224 1,630 m of elevation. Based on new sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA we present phylogenetic relationships of the new species and its congeners. The phylogeny shows a close relationship to C. antenori, C. carvalhoi, C. magnova and C. tridactyla. The new species is part of a clade of species that were previously assigned to the genus Syncope. This clade has a sister relationship to a clade that contains all remaining species of Chiasmocleis. The new species differs from its congeners by its reddish-brown to dark-brown (sepia) dorsum with minute yellowish-white spots. Chiasmocleis parkeri sp. nov. is similar to Chiasmocleis antenori in lacking digit I of both hands and feet but Chiasmocleis parkeri differs in coloration, arrangement and size of pale spots, and the absence of a pale line in the canthal region. We describe the calls, which are characterized by having non-pulsed notes, and we provide ecological data from the type locality and adjacent areas.

In recent decades, a renewed interest in comparative studies of embryonic ontogeny in anurans is taking place. Toad embryos are often employed as model organisms, and scarce attention has been put on interspecific variations. In this work we analyze the development of transient embryonic and larval structures in 21 species in five genera of Bufonidae. These species vary in their ovipositional mode and the type of environments where the embryos and tadpoles develop, including ponds, streams, and axils of leaves of terrestrial or epiphytic plants. Comparative anatomical studies and sequence heterochrony analyses show that primary morphological variations occur in the morphology at the tail-bud stage, the arrangement and development of the external gills, adhesive gland type and division timing, growth of the dorsal hatching gland on the head, configuration of the oral disc, emergence and development of the hind limbs, and presence of the abdominal sucker. Some of these transformations are best explained by phylogeny (e.g., early divergent taxa of bufonids have embryos with kyphotic body curvature, Type C adhesive glands, and a very small third pair of gills). Other traits might be correlated with reproductive modes (e.g., phytotelmata embryos hatch comparatively late and show an accelerated development of hind limbs). Because these actual variations are not well studied (e.g., less than the 10% of the known diversity of bufonids has been studied from this perspective), comprehensive analyses are required to interpret character evolution and the relationship with reproductive modes within the family.

Ecnomiohyla tuberculosa is an Amazonian hylid of uncertain phylogenetic position. Herein DNA sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear genes are used to determine its phylogenetic relationships. New sequences and external morphology of Trachycephalus typhonius are also analyzed to assess the status of Ecuadorian and Peruvian populations. The phylogeny shows unequivocally that Ecnomiohyla tuberculosa is nested within the genus Tepuihyla, tribe Lophiohylini. This position was unexpected because the remaining species of Ecnomiohyla belong to the tribe Hylini. To solve the paraphyly of the genus Ecnomiohyla, E. tuberculosa is transferred to the genus Tepuihyla. Comparisons of DNA sequences, external morphology, and advertisement calls between populations of Ecnomiohyla tuberculosa from Ecuador and Peru indicate that the Peruvian population represents an undescribed species. The new species is described and a species account is provided for Ecnomiohyla tuberculosa. Trachycephalus typhonius is paraphyletic relative to T. cunauaru, T. hadroceps, and T. resinifictrix. The phylogenetic position of populations from western Ecuador indicates that they represent a species separate from T. typhonius sensu stricto. We resurrect the name Hyla quadrangulum (Trachycephalus quadrangulum comb. n.) for those populations. Amazonian populations of “T. typhonius” from Ecuador and Peru are genetically and morphologically distinct from T. typhonius sensu stricto and are conspecific with the holotype of Hyla macrotis. Therefore, we also resurrect Hyla macrotis, a decision that results in Trachycephalus macrotis comb. n.

We describe two new species of frogs of the genus Pristimantis from the eastern slopes of the Ecuadorian Andes, at Parque Nacional Llanganates. The new species are characterized by the spiny appearance typical of several species inhabiting montane forests. Pristimantis yanezi sp. n. is most similar to P. colonensis and P. incanus but differs from both in groin coloration and by having smaller tubercles on the upper eyelids, heels, and tarsus. Pristimantis llanganati sp. n. is most similar to P. eriphus and P. chloronotus. It can be distinguished from P. eriphus by the color pattern on the scapular region and by having smaller conical tubercles on the dorsum. Pristimantis chloronotus differs from P. llanganati sp. n. in having a pair of sinuous paravertebral folds. Both new species occur in a region with few amphibian collections and nothing is known about their abundance and ecology. Therefore, it is recommended to assign them to the Data Deficient Red List category. Updated figures of species richness of Pristimantis among biogeographic regions in Ecuador are also presented. Pristimantis reach their highest diversity in Montane Forests of the eastern versant of the Andes. Its species richness across regions cannot be explained by regional area, elevation, temperature, or precipitation. Political endemism in Pristimantis is higher than that of other terrestrial vertebrates.

Cóndor and eastern Andean slopes in the province of Zamora Chinchipe, southeastern of Ecuador. We inferred its phylogenetic position using DNA sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear genes. The new species is strongly supported as part of a clade that includes P. ardalonychus, P. cajamarcensis, P. ceuthospilus, P. chalceus, P. minutulus, P. luteolateralis, P. parvillus, P. ockendeni, P. unistrigatus, and P. walkeri. It can be distinguished from all other species from Cordillera del Cóndor and congeneric species by the unique combination of the following characters: (1) iris light blue with black reticulations; (2) skin of dorsum finely shagreen with scattered pustular tubercles and absence of dorsal folds; (3) tympanic membrane and tympanic annulus visible; (4) snout rounded in dorsal and lateral view; (5) upper eyelid bearing two or three enlarged subconical tubercles; (6) cranial crest absent; (7) males lacking vocal sac and slits; and (8) venter uniformly bright red, light red, salmon or orange. The new species is most closely related to P. ardalonychus, P. cajamarcensis, P. ceuthospilus, P. ockendeni and P. unistrigatus. We consider the new species to be Endangered following IUCN criteria because it has been severely affected by large scale open-pit mining in some localities. Currently, the amphibian fauna of the Cordillera del Cóndor and nearby protected areas are threatened by large–scale copper and gold mining projects with devastating effects on ~20 species, including several undescribed ones.

The Hyloscirtus larinopygion group is a clade of 16 species of large hylids that inhabit cascading Andean streams. They have brown coloration that, in most species, contrasts with bright marks. Herein morphological and genetic evidence is used to describe a new species of the group from Cordillera del Cóndor, a sub-Andean mountain chain that has phytogeographic affinities with the Guianan Tepuis. The new species is characterized by dark-brown coloration with contrasting bright orange flecks and by the presence of an enlarged and curved prepollex protruding as a spine. The new species is closely related to H. tapichalaca and an undescribed species from the southern Andes of Ecuador. The genetic distance between H. hillisi sp. n. and its closest relative, H. tapichalaca, is 2.9% (gene 16S mtDNA). Our phylogeny and a review of recently published phylogenies show that amphibians from Cordillera del Cóndor have close relationships with either Andean or Amazonian species. Amphibians do not show the Condor-Guianan Tepuis biogeographic link that has been documented in plants

The genus Dendropsophus is one of the most speciose among Neotropical anurans and its number of described species is increasing. Herein, molecular, morphological, and bioacoustic evidence are combined to assess species limits within D. parviceps, a widely distributed species in the Amazon Basin. Phylogenetic relationships were assessed using 3040 bp sequences of mitochondrial DNA, genes 12S, ND1, and CO1. The phylogeny shows three well[1]supported clades. Bioacoustic and morphological divergence is congruent with those clades demonstrating that Dendropsophus parviceps is a species complex. Dendropsophus parviceps sensu stricto occurs in the Amazon basin of Ecuador, northern Peru, southern Colombia and northwestern Brazil. It is sister to two previously undescribed species, D. kubricki sp. n. from central Peru and D. kamagarini sp. n. from southern Peru, northeastern Bolivia, and northwestern Brazil. Genetic distances (uncorrected p, gene 12S) between D. parviceps and the new species is 3 to 4%. Dendropsophus kamagarini sp. n. can be distinguished from D. parviceps by having a prominent conical tubercle on the distal edge of the upper eyelid (tubercle absent in D. parviceps). Dendropsophus kubricki sp. n. differs from D. parviceps by having scattered low tubercles on the upper eyelids (smooth in D. parviceps). Dendropsophus parviceps and both new species differ from all their congeners by their small size (adult maximum SVL = 28.39 mm in females, 22.73 mm in males) and by having a bright orange blotch on the hidden areas of the shanks and under arms.

Amphibians are probably the most vulnerable group to climate change and climate change associate diseases. This ongoing biodiversity crisis makes it thus imperative to improve the taxonomy of anurans in biodiverse but understudied areas such as Amazonia. In this study, we applied robust integrative taxonomic methods combining genetic (mitochondrial 16S, 12S and COI genes), morphological and environmental data to delimit species of the genus Amazophrynella (Anura: Bufonidae) sampled from throughout their pan-Amazonian distribution. Our study confirms the hypothesis that the species diversity of the genus is grossly underestimated. Our analyses suggest the existence of eighteen linages of which seven are nominal species, three Deep Conspecific Lineages, one Unconfirmed Candidate Species, three Uncategorized Lineages, and four Confirmed Candidate Species and described herein. We also propose a phylogenetic hypothesis for the genus and discuss its implications for historical biogeography of this Amazonian group.

We describe through integrative taxonomy a new Amazonian species of leaf-litter toad of the Rhinella margaritifera species group. The new species inhabits open lowland forest in southwest Amazonia in Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. It is closely related to a Bolivian species tentatively identified as Rhinella cf. paraguayensis. Both the new species and R. paraguayensis share an uncommon breeding strategy among their Amazonian congeners: each breeds in moderate to large rivers instead of small streams or ponds formed by rainwater. The new species is easily differentiated from other members of the R. margaritifera species group by having a strongly developed bony protrusion at the angle of the jaw, a snout–vent length of 63.4–84.7 mm in females and 56.3–72.3 mm in males, well-developed supratympanic crests with the proximal portion shorter than the parotoid gland in lateral view, a divided distal subarticular tubercle on finger III, and multinoted calls composed of groups of 7–9 pulsed notes and a dominant frequency of 1,012–1,163 Hz. Recent studies have shown that the upper Madeira Basin harbors a megadiverse fauna of anurans, including several candidate species. This is the first member of the R. margaritifera species group to be described from this region in recent years, and at least two additional unnamed species await formal description.

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo explorar la posible relación entre los procesos de razonamiento moral (emocionales y racionales) y la resolución dada a los conflictos éticos en relación a las Tecnologías de la Información (TI). Para ello, se trabajó con una muestra de 177 estudiantes de Ingeniería de Sistemas (83% hombres, 17% mujeres) de entre 17 a 26 años, a quienes se les aplicó el ‘Ethical IT Survey’ y un cuestionario suplementario para medir razonamiento moral. Los resultados indican que existe diferencias en los puntajes obtenidos para las cuatro categorías de escenarios analizados, ubicando a las respuestas de los temas de Privacidad y Propiedad como éticamente cuestionables, y a los de Precisión y Accesibilidad como antiéticas. El tipo de razonamiento que prevalece es el emocional. Asimismo, más de la mitad de los participantes reportan haber cometido conductas antiéticas en lo que respecta a las categorías de Propiedad y Accesibilidad, lo que muestra una discrepancia entre la apreciación cognitiva del conflicto ético y la ejecución de conductas relacionadas con estas temáticas. Se concluye que es fundamental en la formación de los estudiantes enfatizar la importancia de la ética en los asuntos relacionados con las TI.

We describe two new species of salamanders of the genus Oedipina, subgenus Oe dopinola, from two localities on the northwestern foothills of Ecuador, at elevations between 921 and 1,067 m. These are the southernmost members of the genus. We examined different museum collections and we found just three specimens of Oedipina from Ecuador, obtained throughout the history of herpetological collections in the country.We identify two of the three specimens as new species, but refrain from assigning a specific identity to the third, pending further study. Oedipina villamizariorum sp. n. is a medium-sized member of the genus, with a narrow, relatively pointed head and blunt snout; dorsolaterally oriented eyes, moderate in size; and digits that are moderately long and having pointed tips. Oedipina ecuatoriana sp. n., somewhat larger, has a narrow head and broadly rounded snout; this new species differs from all known Oedipina by the distinctive presence of paired prefrontal bones and a reduced phalangeal formula: 0-0-1-0; 0-1-2-1-1. We provide detailed descriptions of the osteology of both new species.Finally, we present a phylogenetic hypothesis for the genus, including one of the two new species, based on partial sequences of mitochondrial DNA.

Microbiome–pathogen interactions are increasingly recognized as an important element of host immunity. While these host-level interactions will have consequences for community disease dynamics, the factors which influence host microbiomes at larger scales are poorly understood. We here describe landscape-scale pathogen–microbiome associations within the context of post-epizootic amphibian chytridiomycosis, adisease caused by the panzootic chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. We undertook a survey of Neotropical amphibians across altitudinal gradients in Ecuador~30 years following the observed amphibian declines and collected skin swab-sam-ples which were metabarcoded using both fungal (ITS-2) and bacterial (r16S) ampli-cons. The data revealed marked variation in patterns of both B. dendrobatidis infection and microbiome structure that are associated with host life history. Stream breeding amphibians were most likely to be infected with B. dendrobatidis. This increased probability of infection was further associated with increased abundance and diversity of non-Batrachochytrium chytrid fungi in the skin and environmental microbiome.We also show that increased alpha diversity and the relative abundance of fungi are lower in the skin microbiome of adult stream amphibians compared to adult pond breeding amphibians, an association not seen for bacteria. Finally, stream tadpoles exhibit lower proportions of predicted protective microbial taxa than pond tadpoles,suggesting reduced biotic resistance. Our analyses show that host breeding ecology strongly shapes pathogen–microbiome associations at a landscape scale, a trait that may influence resilience in the face of emerging infectious diseases.

Aim: We analysed elevational and microclimatic drivers of thermal tolerance diversity in a tropical mountain frog clade to test three macrophysiological predictions: less spatial variation in upper than lower thermal limits (Bretts’ heat‐invariant hypoth‐ esis); narrower thermal tolerance ranges in habitats with less variation in temperature (Janzen's climatic variability hypothesis); and higher level of heat impacts at lower elevations. Location: Forest and open habitats through a 4,230‐m elevational gradient across the tropical Andes of Ecuador. Method: We examined variability in critical thermal limits (CTmax and CTmin) and thermal breadth (TB; CTmax–CTmin) in 21 species of Pristimantis frogs. Additionally, we monitored maximum and minimum temperatures at the local scale (tmax, tmin) and estimated vulnerability to acute thermal stress from heat (CTmax–tmax) and cold (tmin–CTmin), by partitioning thermal diversity into elevational and microclimatic variation. Results: Our results were consistent with Brett's hypothesis: elevation promotes more variation in CTmin and tmin than in CTmax and tmax. Frogs inhabiting thermally variable open habitats have higher CTmax and tmax and greater TBs than species restricted to forest habitats, which show less climatic overlap across the elevational gradient (Janzen's hypothesis). Vulnerability to heat stress was higher in open than forest habitats and did not vary with elevation.

The Andes have experienced an unprecedented wave of amphibian declines and extinctions that are linked to a combination of habitat reduction and the spread of the fungal pathogen, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd). In the present study, a range of high-altitude habitats in Southern Ecuador were surveyed for the presence of Bd. With a particular focus on Yacuri National Park, infection data are presented from across the resident amphibian community. This community contains a once putatively extinct species which was rediscovered in 2016, the Podocarpus Stubfoot Toad (Atelopus podocarpus). Across species, local Bd prevalence was 73% in tadpoles (n = 41 individuals from three species) and 14% in adults (n = 43 individuals from 14 species). Strikingly, 93% (14/15) of tested tadpoles of the recently described local endemic, Gastrotheca yacuri, were infected with a high pathogen load, suggesting that this species likely acts as a reservoir of infection in Yacuri. These fndings show that the threat of disease for A. podocarpus still exists, and that this species requires urgent action to ensure its survival

Molecular phylogenies have yielded strong support for many parts of the amphibian Tree of Life, but poor support for the resolution of deeper nodes, including relationships among families and orders. To clarify these relationships, we provide a phylogenomic perspective on amphibian relationships by developing a taxon-specific Anchored Hybrid Enrichment protocol targeting hundreds of conserved exons which are effective across the class. After obtaining data from 220 loci for 286 species (representing 94% of the families and 44% of the genera), we estimate a phylogeny for extant amphibians and identify gene tree–species tree conflict across the deepest branches of the amphibian phylogeny. We perform locus-by-locus genealogical interrogation of alternative topological hypotheses for amphibian monophyly, focusing on interordinal relationships. We find that phylogenetic signal deep in the amphibian phylogeny varies greatly across loci in a manner that is consistent with incomplete lineage sorting in the ancestral lineage of extant amphibians. Our results overwhelmingly support amphibian monophyly and a sister relationship between frogs and salamanders, consistent with the Batrachia hypothesis. Species tree analyses converge on a small set of topological hypotheses for the relationships among extant amphibian families. These results clarify several contentious portions of the amphibian Tree of Life, which in conjunction with a set of vetted fossil calibrations, support a surprisingly younger timescale for crown and ordinal amphibian diversification than previously reported. More broadly, our study provides insight into the sources, magnitudes, and heterogeneity of support across loci in phylogenomic data sets.

The combination of genetic and phenotypic characters for species delimitation has allowed the discovery of many undescribed species of Neotropical amphibians. In this study, we used DNA sequences (genes 12S, 16S, ND1 and COI) and morphologic, bioacoustic and environmental characters of the Boana semilineata group to evaluate their phylogenetic relationships and assess their species limits. In addition, we included DNA sequences of several species of Boana to explore cryptic diversity in other groups. We found three Confirmed Candidate Species (CCS) within the B. semilineata group. Holotype examination of Hyla appendiculata shows that it is a valid species that corresponds to one of the CCS, which is here transferred to Boana. We describe the two remaining CCS. Our phylogeny highlights a number of secondary but meaningful observations that deserve further investigation: (1) populations of B. pellucens from northern Ecuador are more closely related to B. rufitela from Panama than to other Ecuadorian populations of B. pellucens; (2) we report, for the first time, the phylogenetic relationships of B. rubracyla showing that it is closely related to B. rufitela and B. pellucens; and (3) B. cinerascens and B. punctata form two species complexes consisting of several unnamed highly divergent lineages. Each of these lineages likely represents an undescribed species.

Many vertebrates have distinctive blue-green bones and other tissues due to unusually high biliverdin concentrations[1]a phenomenon called chlorosis. Despite its prevalence, the biochemical basis, biology, and evolution of chlorosis are poorly understood. In this study, we show that the occurrence of high biliverdin in anurans (frogs and toads) has evolved multiple times during their evolutionary history, and relies on the same mechanism-the presence of a class of serpin family proteins that bind biliverdin. Using a diverse combination of techniques, we purified these serpins from several species of nonmodal treefrogs and developed a pipeline that allowed us to assemble their complete amino acid and nucleotide sequences. The described proteins, hereafter named biliverdinbinding serpins (BBS), have absorption spectra that mimic those of phytochromes and bacteriophytochromes. Our models showed that physiological concentration of BBSs fine-tune the color of the animals, providing the physiological basis for crypsis in green foliage even under near-infrared light. Additionally, we found that these BBSs are most similar to human glycoprotein alpha[1]1-antitrypsin, but with a remarkable functional diversification. Our results present molecular and functional evidence of recurrent evolution of chlorosis, describe a biliverdin-binding protein in vertebrates, and introduce a function for a member of the serpin superfamily, the largest and most ubiquitous group of protease inhibitors.

The Osteocephalus buckleyi species group is widely distributed in primary and secondary forests of the Amazon Basin and Guiana Region. Based on integrative analysis, including morphological and genetic data, we estimate the phylogenetic relationships and species boundaries among populations of the Osteocephalus buckleyi group from the Ecuadorian Amazon, focusing on the O. verruciger-O. cannatellai species complex. Our results uncovered the existence of one confirmed candidate species from Sangay National Park and one unconfirmed candidate species. Here, we describe the new species which is morphologically and ecologically distinct from other Osteocephalus species. The new species is unusual because it shows quite distinct morphology, but low genetic distances compared to its closest relatives.

We describe a new species of Pristimantis from the montane forest of the Río Zuñag Ecological Reserve, upper basin of the Pastaza River, Ecuador. Pristimantis mallii sp. n. is characterized by a snout-vent length of 11.6–21.3 mm in adult males (n = 12), 22.6–34.3 mm in adult females (n = 8), and is compared morphologically and genetically with Pristimantis miktos and with other relevant species of Pristimantis. The new species is characterized by having skin on dorsum and flanks shagreen, distinctive scapular folds, snout broadly rounded in dorsal view, upper eyelid bearing one or two subconical tubercles and some rounded tubercles, dorsum and flanks light brown to brown, with irregular dark brown marks bounded by dirty cream and groin with irregular yellowish marks.

We describe a new species of Lynchius from the eastern montane forest of southern Ecuador. We also report the occurrence of L. parkeri in Ecuador, on paramos of Yacuri National Park, near the border with Peru. We used morphological and ge[1]netic evidence for the description of the new species and the new report of L. parkeri. Phylogenetic analyses were carried out using both maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference on DNA sequences for mitochondrial and nuclear genes. The phylogeny shows that L. simmonsi is sister to a clade composed of the remaining species of Lynchius and that the new species is sister to L. flavomaculatus. The new species has a prominent and heavily ossified head with noticeably spiculate cranial exostosis that easily distinguishes it from all its congeners. The dorsal region and limbs present several reduced subconical and rounded tubercles and pronounced dermal ridges on the dorsum. We also describe the osteology of the new species based on x-rays of the holotype. Only six species of Lynchius, two known to occur in Ecuador (L. flavomaculatus and L. simmonsi). The description of L. megacephalus sp. n. and new record of L. parkeri double the number of known Lynchius in Ecuador and suggest that the diversity of Ecuadorian and Peruvian Lynchius is still underestimated.

Since 1984 there have been no records of Rhaebo colomai (Hoogmoed, 1985) within the territory of Ecuador. This species was known from 2 localities in the province of Carchi, northwestern Ecuador, and the department of Nariño, southwestern Colombia, which were reported in 1979 and 2015, respectively. We report the recent sightings of R. colomai at 3 new localities in Ecuador and discuss and evaluate this species’ extinction risk and conservation status.

We describe a new species of terrestrial frog of the genus Noblella from the eastern versants of the Ecuadorian Andes in the upper Pastaza watershed. Noblella naturetrekii sp. n. differs from its Ecuadorian congeners by the presence of a differentiated tympanic membrane and a weakly defined tympanic annulus, and eyelids with rounded tubercles. In addition, the new species is characterized by its blackish-dark brown ventral coloration scattered with little white dots and the absence of papillae at the tip of the fingers and toes. We provide a detailed description of the call and osteology of the new species. Finally, we present the most complete phylogeny of the genus, which confirms that Noblella is a non-monophyletic group.